An Analysis of the Qur’an in the Light of Documented History

By Dr. Rafat Amari

What is the Documented History?

To begin we’ll address the question, “What is documented history?” History is based on documented narration which is information provided by historians through what they wrote in books during the times in which they lived.

One example of documented narration is the writings of the Greek historian, Herodotus, who was born in Asia Minor and lived in the 5^th century B.C. Cicero considered him the father of history. He wrote a history of the world, especially focusing on the Persian Wars. His work simply titled Histories covers a period from the middle of the 6th century B.C. to the early part of the 5th century B.C. Ancient historians such as Herodotus not only can be a reliable source for information on the era in which they lived but their information can be vital to our understanding of the previous century. Other Greek and Roman historians who came after Herodotus also wrote valuable works which can be considered reliable sources of documented history.

Still others who contributed to documenting history are written records or chronicles of kings and nations. The chronicles of the Assyrians, Chaldeans and Persians are especially helpful. The most ancient chronicles come from the Assyrians and date back to the 7th or 8th centuries B.C. These sources would be enough in themselves, but we have more resources for documenting history, including the annals and the inscriptions on stones and other archaeological findings.

The Bible as a Valid Resource for Ancient History

It is true we have all of these resources to validate ancient history, but the single most reliable resource is the Bible. The books of the Bible were written by various prophets who lived at various times. Moreover, they were inspired by God to ensure accuracy. Most of the inspired writers of the Old Testament lived and wrote before the historians themselves.

The first Biblical writer was Moses who lived in the 15th century B.C. Moses chronicled the nations as they branched and grew from Noah's sons after the flood. Moses’ writings make up Genesis, the first book of the Bible. Though in the past, scholars doubted some of the Biblical narrations, today, we have found archaeological discoveries which confirm the historical accuracy of the Bible. Although the Bible covers a period in history where there were no historians, archaeology has increased our knowledge through its excavations in different sites throughout the Middle East. Since archaeology has never contradicted the Biblical narration, the Bible is considered a valuable resource, especially for ancient history.

The unhistorical and false chronology of the narration found in the Qur’an

On the other hand, Islam does not have a single resource to document its claims. Mohammed wrote in the 7th century A.D., a long time after the documented histories which had preceded him. He never presented a chronology of history like we find in the Bible because he never had one. All he had were stories which he mixed with the personalities he borrowed from the Bible. In some cases, Mohammed inserted these accounts in other time periods hundreds, and sometimes thousands, of years from the time in which those personalities lived.

The Qur’an Placed Haman and the Tower of Mesopotamia in Egypt at the Same Time as Moses

For example, he placed Haman, the prime minister of the Persian king, Ahasuerus, and the tower of Mesopotamia in Egypt, at the same time as Moses. Ahasuerus has been identified by most scholars as Xerxes who became king in the year 486 B.C., not at the time of Moses who lived in the 15th century B.C. Mohammed claims Pharaoh asked Haman to burn bricks and build a tower so he could go to heaven and see the God of Moses. Here is Mohammed’s account in Surah Al-Qasas, 28:38,

Pharaoh said, “O people, I know no god except me. Therefore, Oh Haman, light me a kiln to bake bricks out of clay and build me a lofty tower, that I may mount up to see the God of Moses because I think Moses is a liar.”

Mohammed borrowed this story from Genesis, 11:3, 4. After the flood:

They said to each other, “Come, let's make bricks and bake them thoroughly.” They used brick instead of stone, and tar for mortar. Then they said, “Come, let us build ourselves a city, with a tower that reaches to the heavens, so that we may make a name for ourselves and not be scattered over the face of the whole earth.”

We know that the Pharaohs never built towers which were characteristic of the towers of Mesopotamia. The Egyptians didn’t use burnt bricks until the Roman occupation of Egypt. They used stones for the pyramids and their temples. For houses, they used bricks which were dried with the sun’s heat.

Mohammed Applied the Name “Samaritan” to the Time of Moses, Even Though the Samaritans did not Appear Before the 6th Century B.C.

One example of a misapplied title is found in Mohammed’s narration concerning the golden calf, which the book of Exodus says Aaron made in the wilderness. This occurred when Moses went to the mountain to receive the Ten Commandments. Due to pressure from the Israelites who saw that Moses was delayed for 40 days, Aaron submitted to the Israelites’ demands and made the golden calf idol for them to worship. Mohammed reported the event in Surah Ta Ha 20:85-97 when he wrote:

Allah said, “We have seduced your people in your absence. The Samaritan had led them astray.” Moses returned to his people in a state of anger and sorrow. He said to them, “Oh people, did not your lord make a good promise to you? Did the promise seem too long for you, or did you want the wrath to come down on you from the lord, and so you broke your promise to me?”

They said, “We broke not the promise to you, as far as it lay in our power, but we were made to carry the weight of the ornaments of the people, and we threw them into the fire, and that’s what the Samaritan threw. Then he brought a lowing calf before them. So they said, “This is your god and the god of Moses.”

Then Moses said, “What is the matter with you, O Samaritan?” He replied: “I saw what they saw not, so that I took a handful of dust from the footprint of the Apostle, and threw it into the calf … “Go” Moses said to him. “Your punishment in this life will be that you will say, 'Touch me not.' And you will have a day of punishment that will not fail. So look to your God from whom you have gone astray and whom you have worshipped.”

When Mohammed attributed these words to the Samaritan, he certainly had had Simon, the Samaritan magician in the book of the Acts of the Apostles, in mind. Simon deceived the people of the city of Samaria with his magic and was rebuked by the Apostle Peter. The similarity between the rebuke of Moses to the Samaritan in the Qur’an and the rebuke of Peter to the Samaritan in the book of Acts, indicates Mohammed wanted to use the Samaritan in the book of Acts to place him at the time of Moses, even though there were 1500 years between the two events.

The city of Samaria was built by Omri, King of Israel, around the year 880 B.C., but the name “Samaritans” was not coined until the 6th century B.C. when it was given to the people whom the Assyrians brought to Samaria after Sargon II occupied the city in year 721 B.C. Mohammed, who was ignorant of the history of the Samaritans, was caught in a major historical mistake.

Mohammed in the Qur’an Confused Mary, the Mother of Jesus, with Mary, the Sister of Aaron and Moses

Another example of Mohammed’s confusion of the historical facts was in the Biblical chronology concerning Mary. Mohammed was misled by the Mandaeans when he considered Mary, the mother of Jesus, to be Mary, the sister of Aaron and Moses mentioned in the Bible. Mary, the mother of Jesus, in Arabic is called Miriam, the same name as the sister of Aaron and Moses as found in Numbers 26:59. In Sura Maryam 19 :28, the text addresses Mary, the mother of Jesus, “Oh sister of Aaron, your father was not a man of evil, nor your mother a woman unchaste.”

Mohammed intended in this Qur’anic verse to show that Mary, the mother of Jesus, was the same Mary who was the sister of Aaron and Moses. This is confirmed in another Surah in which Mohammed contends that Jochebed, the wife of Amram, who was the father of Aaron and Moses, dedicated Mary, the mother of Jesus, when she was born. This we read in Surah 3 al-I’Imran: 35 and 36:

Oh my lord I am delivered of a female child. And Allah knew best what she brought forth. In no way is the male like the female. And I have named her Mary.

Mohammed made these statements even though Mary, the sister of Aaron and the daughter of Amram, was born near the end of the 16th century B.C, while Mary, the mother of Jesus, was born between 26 and 20 B.C. 

Mohammed’s confusion resulted from the fact that he was misled by the Mandaeans, a sect that appeared for the first time in Mesopotamia in the 2nd century A.D. The Mandaeans were known in Arabia as Sabians. Mohammed was acquainted with their teachings, and sometimes called Sabian by his contemporaries because they saw him practicing many Sabian rituals, such as: praying five times a day;  preceding each prayer with ablution like the Sabian Mandaeans did; and adopting the same movements during prayer, and  other rituals. The Mandaeans thought that Mary, the mother of Jesus, was a member of the family of Moses and Aaron. In their book Haran Gawaita, dated in the 3rd century A.D, we read about Jesus who, according to their book:

was placed in the womb of Mary, a daughter of Moses. He was hidden in her womb for nine months. When the nine months were fulfilled, she entered labor and brought forth the Messiah.[1][1]

Mohammed was called a Sabian by his co-citizens. For example, on his return from one of his campaigns, he was thirsty. His companions asked a woman who carried a water skin to carry water for him. The woman asked, “Where?”  They said “To the prophet of Allah,” to which she replied, “To that one who is called a Sabian?” and they answered, “Exactly, to the one you call a Sabian.”  The woman returned to Mecca and said,  “Two men I encountered brought me to the one called Sabian.”[2][2] We see that Mohammed was recognized by the people of Mecca as a member of the Sabian community. Earlier Islamic literature says that the tribe of Quraish called Mohammed a Sabian, and they called the followers of Mohammed Sabians as well,[3][3] demonstrating to us that the Arabians at the time of Mohammed were  acquainted with the Sabian sects, their rituals and teachings. They knew the relationship Mohammed enjoyed with the Sabian sects of Mecca, so when Mohammed came out with new religious claims, it appeared to the Quraish tribe as coming from the Sabians who lived among them.

When Hasin, the father of a Muslim named Umran,   became Muslim, the tribe of Quraish said he “Saba,”[4][4] which means he converted to the doctrines and  religion of the Sabians. When Hamzeh, the uncle of Mohammed, entered the mosque to support Mohammed, they said to him, “We see only that you became a Sabian.”[5][5]  Abu Lahab, an uncle of Mohammed who disagreed with Mohammed, called Hamzeh “the stupid Sabian.”[6][6] All these historical facts show that the tribe of Quraish classified Muslims as a Sabian sect.

Not only did the tribe of Quraish make this judgment, but other Arabian tribes followed suit as well. A man named Labeid went to visit Mohammed and became a Muslim. He returned to Bani Amer, his tribe, doing ablutions, which were ceremonial washings like the Sabians performed. He adopted Sabian slogans such as the cry, “Allah Akber,” which means, “Allah is greater.”  Labeid began bowing and kneeling like the Sabians,  praying like them and saying the Fatihah. All the rituals of prayer known to the Arabians as Sabian rituals became incorporated into Islam. Sirafa Bin Auf Bin al- Ahwas, the poet of the tribe of Bani Amer, saw Labeid’s Sabian rituals and mocked him in a poem in which he described Labeid  as “one who came to them with the religion of the Sabians.”[7][7]

Confusion on the Timing of the Tribes of Ad and Thamud

Another example which shows Mohammed’s ignorance of historical chronology is where he placed the Arabian tribes of Ad and Thamud. Ad was a small Arabian tribe which lived in northern Arabia in the 2nd century A.D. Claudius Ptolemy of Alexandria, Egypt, was born in the year 90 A.D. and died in 168 A.D. He wrote his famous book of geography in the first part of the 2nd century A.D. Among the tribes he mentioned in one of his maps was Oaditae, which many identify with Ad. Ptolemy placed Oaditae in the area east of Gulf Aqaba. No other geographer had previously mentioned this tribe; though classical authors like Pliny (who wrote around the years 69-70 A.D.) had mentioned all tribes in the region, yet he did not mention this tribe. Prior to him, Strabo wrote about the same region without mentioning this tribe. Other classical Greek authors, such as Agatharchides of Alexandria who wrote between 145-132B.C., described the region, but he did not mention this tribe. All this shows that the tribe of Ad was a small tribe which appeared in the 2nd century A.D.  It is not known for how long it existed there; most probably was absorbed by greater tribes in the area such as Thamud.

Mohammed claimed members of this tribe inhabited of the earth in the second generation after Noah. We read in Surah al-A'raf 7, 69:

Call to your remembrance that he made you inheritors after the people of Noah, and gave you a stature tall among the nations.

And in Sura 23:32:

Then we raised another generation after them - by which he means after the people who died in the flood at the time of Noah - and we sent a messenger to them from among themselves saying “Worship Allah.”

Mohammed claimed that the tribe of Ad was destroyed by a cloud or wind that Allah brought against it.

The phrase “stature tall among the nations” in Sura 7:69 indicates that Mohammed was influenced by Manichean literature, which claimed that the people who lived on earth at the time of the flood were giants, very tall in stature. Mani, the founder of Manicheism, wrote a book which he entitled “The Giants.”  We also find this idea in other Gnostic literature embraced by the Manicheans in the 4th century A.D. In 1 Enoch we read that the angels married the human women “and the women became pregnant and bore great giants, having heights of three thousand cubits.”[8][8] (about 4,500 feet). The idea in the Qur’an of the two angels Harut and Marut who came down to Babel and taught magic to people is taken from the book ofGiant of Mani[9][9] The connection between Mohammed and the Manicheans is affirmed by the fact that many people in the tribe of Quraish, from which Mohammed came, embraced Manicheism. The Manicheans were called Zandik at Mecca.[10][10]

Mohammed created a dilemma for Muslims by placing the Arabian tribes, Ad and Thamud,  in a period connected with that of Noah, that is  5000 – 6000 B.C., so they searched for a remedy or a way out from this problem. The first Muslim who proposed a remedy for this contradiction was Ibn Ishak, who died around 774 A.D. (152 years after Mohammed's emigration to Medina).[11][11] Ibn Ishak changed the geneologies in Genesis to fit the Qur'an’s historical mistakes. He added names to the genealogy of Shem son of Noah; Arabic names of his generation stile , that were not known as stile even in four or five centuries prior to his times. He inserted the name of Ad as son of Uz who is mentioned in Genesis 10: 21-24. “as son of Aram, son of Shem, son of Noah.” He then changed the genealogy of Noah arabizing it.[12][12]

 Ibn Ishak was considered by the educated people of his time as one “who fabricates false genealogies” and as a “liar and deceiver.”  Since no one before him had mentioned such modified genealogies, his educated Islamic contemporaries considered him to be a false historian. Yet, in the generations which followed Ibn Ishak's writings became the foundation for a new history which backs the Qur'an. Based on the genealogy that Ibn Ishak invented, Ibn Khaldun (A.D. 1332-1406) claimed that Ad occupied the south of Arabia and part of westernAfrica. [13][13]  He invented this claim without any precedent from history to draw upon. We find no support for his historical fabrication in any archaeological find or writing. The Muslims found an old tomb in Hadramot, among the tombs of southern Arabia, and attributed it to Hud as his tomb without any evidence to support such a claim prior to the Islamic era.

Muslims today look to Surah 50, verse 50, where it says “he destroyed the ancient Ad”,  to claim that there were two Ads: the ancient one (which they placed in southern Arabia) and another Ad that appeared in the north in the area of the Gulf of Aqaba. But the Qur'an called Ad as “ancient” because Mohammed placed it as second generation after Noah, and he did not intend to distinguish it from another more recent Ad.

Muslims also look to Surah 46, verse 21, where it is mentioned “mention the brother of Ad who warned his people about the winding Sand–tracts”; in Arabic the “winding sand tracts” is Ahqaf. They say the first Ad lived in Al-Ahqaf, which they considered as a place in southern Arabia in the desert of Rub al-Khali at the border of Hadramot. But the Qur'an spoke about Hud as a prophet who, according to the Qur'an, was a prophet to Ad, and who warned Ad of a destruction which would come to Ad through winding Sand–tracts. This is what the Qur'an intended by this verse. In verse 24 we find the Qur'an describing the coming of this wind over the tribe of Ad which, according to the Qur'an, destroyed every thing.

The earlier Islamic writers understood the word of Ahqaf not as a place but as windy sand. Among these writers I mention al-Feiruzabadi.[14][14]

The Qur'an intended in this ancient Ad a place in northern Arabia and not in the south. The Qur'an intended that this ancient Ad inhabit the same area that Thamud inhabited immediately after Ad's destruction through wind. The Qur'an specified the area where ancient Ad and Thamud lived by describing the area where houses are being hewed in the rock of the mountains, which we know existed only in a certain place in northern Arabia near the city of Hegra. In reality it was a Nabataean city where some Thamud lived in north western Arabia. In Surah 7 called al-A'raf, verse 69, we see that Mohammed spoke of Ad existing one generation after Noah, and dealt with destroying them; then immediately in verses 73 and 74 he began speaking about the tribe of Thamud as coming a generation after Ad and inheriting their land:

To the Thamud we sent Salih, one of their brothers… Remember how he made you inheritors after the Ad people and gave you habitation in the land, you build for yourselves palaces and castles in the plains and hew homes from the mountains.

It is clear that Mohammed placed this ancient Ad (which he placed after Noah) in the area where houses were hewed in the rocks which in Surah al-Hijr 15:80 he specified that the area was the city Hegra (known also as Hijr):

The inhabitants of Hijr have rejected the messengers. We sent them our signs, but they turned away from them. Out of mountains they hewed homes where they were safe. But the cry seized them one morning and gave them no avail.

We know Hegra is in north western Arabia, and was built by the Nabataeans, who alone were known as people who hew their houses in rocks. So we see that Mohammed meant by the "ancient Ad" a tribe who lived before Thamud in the area of Hegra in north western Arabia, and not a tribe who lived in southern Arabia. He placed such a tribe as second generation after Noah, though we know that Thamud appeared in the 8^th century B.C. (as I will discuss in the coming paragraphs) and Ad appeared in the same area of Thamud only in the 2nd century A.D.

Muslim writers claim the "ancient Ad" lived in southern Arabia and disappeared two or three centuries before the Christian era. But there is no tribe or nation who lived in southernArabia whose history lacks archaeological documentation. Not even one archaeological finding supports this Islamic position. No inscriptions in southern Arabia speak of Ad, though the southern Arabian Inscriptions are the richest in the whole world. Even the smallest nations are richly attested to with hundreds of inscriptions.

NIMROD IN THE  QUR’AN

According to Genesis 10:8-11, Nimrod was the first builder of the old cities of Mesopotamia.  He was the son of Cush, the son of Ham, the son of Noah. We can date him to between 5000 and 4500 B.C. Islamic genealogies correctly state that Nimrod was the son of Cush but incorrectly state that he lived around the time of Abraham.[23]

 This false claim about Nimrod was made to conform to a mistake in the Qur’an, which made Nimrod reign at the time of Abraham. The Qur’an says Nimrod persecuted Abraham and cast him into a fire that did not harm him. We read this in Surah al-Anbiya' 21:51-70 and Surah al-Safat 37:95.

Midrash Rabbah, a mythological Jewish book, is the source of the Qur'anic narration about Nimrod and Abraham

Many Jewish books were widely spread among Arabian tribes who embraced Judaism.  At the time of Mohammed, the myth of the Qur’an regarding Abraham and Nimrod was taken from a Jewish book called Midrash Rabbah. The narration of the Qur’an corresponds perfectly to chapter 17 of this Jewish book. A Jewish writer found in the Bible that Nimrod built the oldest Mesopotamian cities, but the writer incorrectly applied a story from the book of Daniel to Abraham. The book of Daniel told of the three Jewish young men who refused to worship a statue of Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon, and were cast into a fire that didn’t harm them.  However, the writer of Midrash Rabbah ignored the fact that 3000 years separated Abraham from Nimrod.

The Confusion of Mohammed Regarding the History of Alexander , Nimrod and Solomon

In his Hadith, Mohammed claims that Nimrod reigned over the entire earth and that Solomon, Nebuchadnezzar and Dhu al-Qarnayn ruled over the entire earth, as well. Dhu al-Qarnayn means the “one with two horns,” a title for Alexander the Great, as shown by Aramaic literature. Mohammed stated that two were believers: Solomon and Alexander the Great, and that two were infidels: Nimrod and Nebuchadnezzar.[24]

 This assertion is clearly incorrect because not one of these men ruled the whole earth. Alexander the Great did occupy a small part of Europe, in addition to his conquests in the Middle East and parts of Asia. Solomon extended his domain from Israel into parts of Syria and Trans Jordan. Nebuchadnezzar occupied the Fertile Crescent and Egypt.  Nimrod’s reign was limited to Mesopotamia.  So none of them ruled the entire earth.

Mohammed’s Hadith is also clearly incorrect in its claims about who were believers and who were infidels.  Alexander the Great was known to be a pagan king with a passion for the idols of his conquered cities. In spite of this, Mohammed claimed Alexandar was a Muslim leader who made a holy war, or Jihad, to spread Islam throughout the world. (I will refute in detail this claim of the Qur'an in the next section.) Such myths of the Qur’an about Alexander the Great and Solomon are derived from many Arabian resources, especially from poems recited by men of the time, many of whom claimed to be prophets.

ALEXANDER THE GREAT IN THE QURAN

Alexander the Great was known to be a zealot pagan and polytheistic worshipper of idols. But Mohammed claimed Alexander was a servant of Allah who made Jihads, or holy wars, to spread Islam in the ancient world.

In Addition to Mohammed’s confusion with historical chronology, he attributed magical judgments to nations and removed them from history, even though these nations continued to exist throughout history until close to his own time. Like the prophets of the Arabian Jinn religion, Mohammed wrote important historical figures into the religion of Islam.

For example, Mohammed claimed Alexander the Great was a Muslim leader who made Jihads to spread the religion of Allah throughout the world. At the time of Mohammed the Qur’an called him “Dhu al- Qarnayn,” which means “the one with two horns.” This term is used in The Romance of Alexander, an Aramaic book which spread among Nastoric Christians before Islam.  Old versions of The Romance of Alexander  were found which carry the title of “Dhu al-Qarnayn.”

Alexander the Great was portrayed on the coins of the kingdom with two horns to symbolize the conquests of the West and the East. Alexander was known to be the most polytheistic pagan worshipper in history. He consulted the priests of the Greek gods before any military campaign, and worshipped the idols of each city he conquered. He claimed that he was a god, the son of the Greek god, Zeus. When Alexander heard that Philotas, the commander of the Companion Cavalry, had mocked his claim to be son of Zeus Ammon, Alexander was so angry that he arrested Philotas, put him on trial and condemned him to death. Alexander's claim to be deity was something mentioned by all the classical writers. The historian Agatharchides said:

Alexander, who was invincible on the battlefield, was completely helpless in his personal relationships. For he was ensnared by praise, and when he called himself the son of Zeus he didn’t think he was being mocked, but thought he was being honored for his passion for the impossible and his forgetfulness of nature.[25]

Aristobulus, an eyewitness working as an engineer for Alexander, gives us the reason why Alexander was planning to conquer Arabia. Aristobulus says:

 when Alexander knew the Arabians worshipped two main deities, he took it for granted that they would worship him as a third deity if he conquered them and allowed them to keep their ancestral independence.[26]

Yet, Mohammed still claimed that Alexander was a Muslim devoted to Allah. Mohammed said Alexander’s campaigns were Jihads for Allah in order to justify Mohammed’s own campaigns against innocent Arabian and Jewish tribes.

What the Qur’an says regarding Dhu al Qarnayn.

The Qur’an tells about Dhu al Qarnayn’s trip to the extremities of the earth, the places where the sun sets and rises from spots on the earth and the place where Gog and Magog live.  According the Qur’an, Dhu al Qarnayn built a dam of iron and brass, in which he imprisoned them until human history concludes.

In the Qur’an, Surah 18: 83-98, we read, “They ask you concerning Dhu al Qarnayn. Tell them I will recite some of his story. We established his power on earth, and we gave him from every thing the means to accomplish. He followed the path until he reached the place where the sun sets. There he found the sun setting in a spring of fetid muddy water. Near it he found a people. We said. ‘Oh, Dhu al Qarnayn, either you torment them or you deal with them kindly.’ To which he said, ‘whoever did injustice, we’ll torment, then we’ll send him back to his lord who will torment him more with an anguish unheard of before.  But, whoever believed and was righteous shall have a good reward and easy tasks.’

Then Dhu al Qarnayn followed another path until he reached the place where the sun rises.   He found it ( the sun) rising over a people to whom, because of the sun,  we did not provide with covering protection.

We completely understood what was before him

Then he followed another path which took him to the two barriers ( two mountains). There he found beneath them a  people who barely understood a sentence. They said, ‘O, Dhu al Qarnayn, the Gog and Magog are corrupting the earth. Shall we give you tribute money so you can erect a dam between us and them?’

“He said, ‘that which my lord has provided is better than the tribute. Therefore, give me your strength, and I will erect a dam between you and them. Bring me iron blocks.’ When he had filled up the space between the edges of the two mountains, he said ‘Blow on it.’ It became fire, then he said ‘bring me Qiter (molten brass,) that I may pour over it .’ Gog and Magog could not scale it nor dig through it. He said ‘This is a mercy from my lord. But, when the promise of my lord ( the last day) will come to pass, he will make the dam into dust.’” The promise of my lord is true.

The word which the Qur’an used for the metal Alexander poured on the iron is “Qiter قِطر,” which means “molten brass.”  Early expositors of the Qur’an such as Ibn al Juzi ابن الجوزي,  who quoted Muqatil مقاتل, confirmed this meaning. They said that Qiter is a molten yellow brass[27]. Yachut al Hamayi, in his famous work called Maajam al Buldan, speaks also of molten yellow brass as the element in which Dhu al Qarnayn varnished the dam[28].  The same meaning is given by all the important Arabic dictionaries, such as al-Munjid[29] . Some translators of the Qur’an try to avoid molten brass as the meaning of Qiter, and render it as “lead.” The reason for this deception is that they were well aware that molten brass was not available to people outside the Roman Empire.

Sources of the Qur'an narration credited to Dhu al Qarnayn

Those words which I translated directly from the Arabic in the Qur’an, were copied directly from a book which dates back many centuries before the Qur’an was written. The Greek text of this book was written in the third century A.D. by a person who claimed to be Callisthenes, the companion and historian of Alexander the Great. Callisthenes accompanied Alexander in his campaigns.  Because it became known that Callisthenes was not the author of the book, it became known as written by Pseudo-Callisthenes.

In later times many writings appeared which relied on the myths of this book. They spread to many countries before the rise of Islam. All these writings , including the book of pseudo-Callisthenes, became sources for the Qur’an’s myth about the voyage of Dhu al Qarnayn. Among these writings was a Syriac letter which became known as “A Christian Legend Concerning Alexander.” Another Syrian writing is  “The Metrical Homily on Alexander,” translated in the fifth century by Jacob Serugh, who was known by Arabs as “Yacob al Saruji.” 

Let’s look at the roots of the myths which influenced the author of the book of Pseudo-Callisthenes, and the Syriac authors who wrote the myths of Alexander. The most important sources these authors had were the “Epic of Gilgamesh” and Persian Zoroastrian mythology.

 
The book of Pseudo-Callisthenes

An unknown Egyptian wrote a book and attributed it to Callisthenes, the companion of Alexander the Great. The writer claimed Alexander the Great was born as a result of a relationship between Nectanebus, an Egyptian King and Olympias, the wife of Philip, the King of Macedonia.  According to the story narrated by this Egyptian writer,  Nectanebus fled from Egypt because of his enemies,  and disguised himself as an Egyptian prophet, astrologer and sorcerer. Upon arriving in Macedonia, he was soon known as a famous prophet and sorcerer.  This led Olympias to call for Nectanebus to consult him regarding her fear that Philip would divorce her when he returned from his current military campaign. But Nectanebus found her beautiful and prophesied that she was going to be sleeping with Amon, the god of Libya, who had two horns on his head. As a result, a child would be born to her who would be  a great king and would dominate the whole world. The child would vindicate her in her relationship to Philip.

Nectanebus also told her that the god Amon might appear to her in different forms, one of which was a large serpent with two horns. Another was the form of Nectanebus himself. Through sorcery, Nectanebus changed his appearance into the one of a serpent, and came to Olympias and slept with her.  As a result she became  pregnant.

Originally the author of the book painted  Alexander as an Egyptian. So he said Alexander, after becoming a king of Macedonia, came to Egypt declaring he was the son of an Egyptian king. Alexander promised the Egyptians that he would carry their burdens, bringing back their kingdom and rescue them from the Persians who were their enemies. Because of this, the Egyptians welcomed Alexander as a great rescuer.

Although the writer claimed Alexander was the son of an Egyptian king, he also said he was the son of Amon, the god of Libya. Since Amon had two horns, the writer called Alexander “the one with two horns.” 

What concerns us most in this mythological book is how Alexander traveled to the extremities of the earth, including the location where the sun rises and sets and where he searches for the spring of life which guarantees immortality. This mythological journey is the foundation and the source of Dhu al Qarnayn’s ( the one of two horns) journey described in the Qur’an, Surah 18, called al Kahf.

The Epic of Gilgamesh as a source for the Pseudo-Callisthenes

The Egyptian author was influenced by Zoroastrian sources. We also find striking similarities between his narration in Mesopotamian mythology  and Pseudo-Callisthenes. The Egyptian author recalls Gilgamesh visiting the location where the sun rises, in order to consult the sun regarding his search for immortality.

Gilgamesh was the king of the Sumerian city of Uruk. The Epic of Gilgamesh and his search for immortality is found written on 12 tablets, which became known as “Sha Najbo Amuru,” which means “the one who saw every thing.” Those were the first words of the first tablet of this series. These tablets were discovered among the ruins of Nineveh, and contain 3,000 lines of text.

Similarities between both narrations are too numerous to be accidental.

We can easily see many similarities between the Mesopotamian journey about Gilgamesh, and the journey of Alexander, or Dhu al Qarnayn. In the first tablet, Gilgamesh possesses great knowledge in every thing, and he travels across land and sea. Likewise, Alexander is given wisdom as he travelers to the extremities of the earth. This is clear in the Pseudo-Callisthenes account as well as in the Qur’an which says in verse 84 of Surah 18 “We established his power on earth, and we gave him every means to accomplish it.”

In the first tablet, we see Gilgamesh formed from the meat of the gods. Alexander is portrayed by Pseudo-Callisthenes as the son of the Amon, god of Libya, intimating he also was a god.

In the third tablet, we find that Gilgamesh revealing the plans for his journey to the elders of the city, who in return, try to discourage him from making this journey. However he insisted. Similarity in the journey of Alexander, he declares his plans to the nobles of the city of Alexandria. He plans to travel to the fetid sea in the extremity of the earth where the sun sets, but the nobles try to convince him to not go, yet he insists.

In the fifth tablet, Gilgamesh comes with his friend to the Cedar Mountain, the land of the gods. Likewise, Alexander comes to the land of the gods, situated in one of the extremities of the earth[30].  

Striking similarities of the hero’s visit to where the sun rises in both Epic of Gilgamesh and and in the Pseudo-Callisthenes account 

In the ninth tablet, Gilgamesh decides to visit Uta-Napishtim, the one who obtained immortality and was deified. Gilgamesh wanted to consult Uta-Napishtim on how to obtain immortality for himself. Gilgamesh goes to the East where he is attacked by animals and humans with strange, anomalous or abnormal shapes, but he overcomes them. Then he reaches Mount Mashu, where it was believed the sun rose and rested. The same thing happened to Alexander. He encountered humans with anomalous forms and mythological animals on his journey. Alexander also reached the Mount Mashu, called Mount Maashi[31]   . Gilgamesh encountered the Scorpion-man, who warns him not to continue his travels because no one before him successfully crossed the land of darkness. Gilgamesh succeeds in crossing it . Similarly, Alexander is advised not to attempt to cross the land of darkness, since all who tried to traverse it perished, and no one ever crossed it[32].  
In the Gilgamesh epic, we also notice that Mount Mashu is guarded by Scorpion men  which are similar to the creatures and animals that Alexander encountered–half humans and half animals. Yet, there are still more striking similarities. Gilgamesh enters a garden full of fruitful trees, where he sees the “the tree of the gods.” The sun speaks directly to him, telling him his request is useless. In like manner, Alexander goes to a garden in the extremity of the earth where he enters the temple of the sun, and sees that the garden is full of fruitful trees. There he sees two giant trees whose tops reach heaven–one is male and the other is female.  The male is the sun, the female is the moon. The name of the tree-sun is Mitora, the tree-moon is Mayosa. These were Persian names: Mitora is derived from Mitra, which the Persian mythology symbolizes as the sun or the rays of the sun. Mayosa, on the other hand, is derived from the first man and woman in Persian mythology who grew like two plants from the seed of the primordial man called Gayomard. In Dinkard, book VIII, these two plants are called Masya and Mashyoi[33].  The presence of such Zoroastrian names in the Syriac version of Pseudo-Callisthenes confirms that it was built on the Pahlavi version of Pseudo-Callisthenes, which scholars think was lost. It returns to the fourth or fifth century A.D. In the garden, the sun speaks to Alexander telling him he will die in Babel, and discouraging him in his search for immortality[34]. 

The Fetid Sea 

In the tenth tablet, Gilgamesh reaches to the fortress of goddess Siduri, who warns him of a devastating and troublesome sea before him. She tells him, “Of the ones who reached here since ancient times tried to cross this sea. Only the hero Shamsh( the sun) actually did cross this sea. Who else succeeded?” We then conclude, that the Sumerian idea included a troublesome sea situated in the extremity of the earth, and only the sun when it was setting crossed this sea. 

Then goddess Siduri said to Gilgamesh, “The passage is hard, and the way is difficult,
and the waters of death which bar its front are deep.  If, then, Gilgamish, thou art able to cross the sea, when you arrive at the waters of death, what will you do?”

This difficult sea and the waters of death described in the Epic of Gilgamesh, has its counterpart in Pseudo-Callisthenes. Here it’s a sea or ocean which surrounds the earth which no one can cross. The story goes that some of Alexander’s soldiers attempted to swim in the sea, but beast-like humans came out of the water and devoured them[35]. This sea is described in many versions of  Pseudo-Callisthenes’ book as a fetid sea full of pus  making its crossing impossible[36] . It is near this fetid sea that the sun sets and enters into heaven through a gate placed there[37].   

 It is clear that those ideas about the troublesome sea which the sun crosses in the Sumerian mythology is the root or foundation for the foetid sea in the pseudo-Callisthenes’ book, where the sun passes over in order to sets in a gate through which it enters heaven.)

The  fetid sea idea is used in the Qur’an where it’s called “the Spring of Hammaah.” In the Qur’an, Dhu al Qarnayn finds the   sun setting in this Spring of Hammaah . Hammaah is an Arabic word which means  fetid or  fetid mud. We’ll see later, how Mohammed used Tubbaa’s idea regarding the sunset.Tubb’a was a Yemeni military leader who occupied Mecca in the beginning of the 5th century A.D . Tubbaa, influenced by a version of Pseudo-Callisthenes’ book, described in a poem how Dhu al Qarnayn found the sun setting in a spring of  fetid muddy water.